Organisation and ICT Essay Example for Free

Organisation and ICT Essay Hardware In ASDAs finance department, as I wrote about in unit 2A, a total of 30 computers are used to deal with business on a daily basis. The specifications of these computers are as follows: * 30 colour, high resolution and flat screen monitors. Used to display the information produced by the computer. patriotic * 30 ergonomic keyboards. To type in the information to the computer. * 30 IBM computer mice which all have infra red enabled wheels. Used to click and go where you want on the computer. * All computers in ASDAs finance department have a 1GB RAM and an 80GB hard drive to allow fast running of the computer and a lot of storage. * All the computers contain sound, graphics and network cards. This allows the computer to use the monitor to display virtually anything. * The computers have USB ports and CD ROM/DVD drives and CD RW drives. This allows transferring information form work to home in the form of a USB key. There is also a main file server which all the computers within the finance department have access to and can get some files from. This computers description is different to all the others and has a 5GB RAM and 200GB Hard drive. This is to allow easy and quick access for files and to fit an enormous amount of files. Other hardware peripherals used in the finance department are printers. There are 16 laser printers in the department meaning 1 printer for every 2 computers. These printers are evenly distributed between each computer and the extra printer is located in the manager of the finance departments office. Also the printer in the managers office also serves a photocopier and a fax machine to utilize work time. In the finance department there are also 5 scanners, 1 scanner serving 6 computers. The main reason scanners are used in the finance department is to scan important documents such as receipts or pictures into documents. These files which are scanned can also be stored as JPEG files on the main server of all the computers. There is also a digital camera which is always kept in the managers office. The main file server has an excellent broadband internet connection that serves all of the computers in the finance department. This internet is supplied by BT as internet service provider (ISP). Computer Hardware Used in ASDAs Finance Department Input Devices How many and location Keyboards ergonomic 30 One on every computer Computer mouse Infra red wheels 30 One on every computer Scanner 5 Six for every computer Microphones 10 Used when needed Debit and Credit Card Machine (ATM) 5 One between every 6 computer Output Devices How many and location Flat Screen high resolution monitors 30 One on every computer Speakers 30 One on every computer Printers 16 2 between 1 computer, 1 in managers office Processors How many and location Central Processing Unit 30 1 in each computer File server. Data Storage: How many and location USB Ports 30 One in every computer Hard disks 30 One in every computer Ports and Cables How many and location USB Ports 30 One in every computer CD Port 30 One in every computer Headphones Port 30 One in every computer Microphone Port 30 One in every computer Software How many and location Microsoft Word 30 One in every computer Microsoft Excel 30 One in every computer Microsoft Access 30 One in every computer Microsoft Outlook 30 One in every computer Microsoft Outlook Express 30 One in every computer Norton Anti Virus 30 One in every computer Dreamweaver 30 One in every computer Sage Accounting Package 30 One in every computer Connections How many and location Intranet connections 30 On all computers Internet link with ISP On main server, but allows all computers to access internet and use e-mail The list above sums up the hardware used by ASDAs finance department. Hardware Applications used by ASDAs Finance Department Input Devices Keyboards: This device is essential to the use of computers as it allows you to type in the information that you want to. Without keyboards, computers would obviously be useless. The arrangement of keys on the core part of the keyboard is identical as any other typewriter. The computer keyboard does have keys which are specifically designed for the computer. Function keys, for example, are programmable and are used by software packages to access particular options, such as Help menus. A number of general uses of keyboards are entering text and numbers into the computer, perhaps using a word processor. Entering keywords into a search engine, a type of program used to find information on the World Wide Web. Controlling animated graphics characters in computer games and entering commands when using a command line interface, such as that for MS-DOS. Keyboards are probably the most commonly used input devices in the finance department along with computer mice and monitors. Computer Mouse: This device is used to navigate through the computer and click on the application that you which to use. This is essential to the efficient running of the computer. There are many types of mice and they have developed over the years. The mouse which the ASDA finance department used is fitted with optical lights which makes it much more quick and efficient and is much more productive than regular mouses. ASDAs finance department want to provide their customers with the best equipment to help them work to the best of their ability. Scanner: The finance department uses scanners to insert photographs or other types of images such as graphs and tables into a document. An example of a sort of document which scanners will be used for is a forecast. The finance department will scan graphs of predicted sales into the forecast to show what will have to be done to achieve the aim of the project. Also previous sale trends will be inserted into the document. Now the forecast is done the finance department will produce a budget where yet again, a scanner will be used to insert some images into the document. An example of this could be a table where the company can expect to make a certain amount of money if they charge a particular price for an item. Microphone: This is an input design which is not used all the time in ASDAs finance department. This is because it is only used to telecommunicate over a distance where the person who needs to communicate to is not in the same place as you. This allows the finance department to be able to hold meetings despite the whereabouts of the staff and times allows the department to make the most of the time that they have. Debit and Credit Card Machine (ATM): This ICT peripheral is an input device when the information needed is inserted into the machine. These pieces of ICT are used in the finance department so that ASDA can pay suppliers and also pay their creditors (who they owe money to) and basically clear their debts. ASDA also use these machines to pay people, including their employees and suppliers. So these machines are very useful to the finance department because it allows them to go about their business quickly and very efficiently. Output Devices Monitors: The monitors which are used in ASDAs finance department are flat screen high resolution monitors. This makes the viewing of the screen very easy and you can see the screen without getting sore eyes. This is an output device because it shows the result of your typing and all the work that you have done. The quality of the monitors at ASDAs finance department is very high and they are 17 in size. The reason why they are used is obvious they display all the work that you have done and is essential to the efficient running of the computer. Speakers: This is an output device because it releases the sounds that the computers are making. The ASDA finance department uses speakers whilst involved in videoconferencing. This allows the department to hold meetings with their staff despite the fact that they might not be at the office at the actual time of the meeting. The speakers are connected to the big screen in the meeting room so it is as is they are in an ordinary meeting. Printers: This is an output device as it gives you the work that you have done when you want to print it. There is a printer for every two computers in the finance department making a total of sixteen computers in ASDAs finance department. The printers in the finance department are fitted with both color ink and black and white ink. This is essential to the finance department as it allows the department to print of vital data from e-mails and documents. Processors This is a component in a computer which is capable of executing a program and it interprets computer program instructions and processes data. This is the core component of a computer. The processor which is in the computers which ASDAs finance department has is Pentium XEON Processor which is a very good processor. Data Storage USB Ports: The definition of a USB port is a Universal Serial Bus standard to interface devices. In ASDAs finance department so the employees are able to complete some work at home and then bring it to work and transfer it to their computer at work. However USB connects far more than some people think, they connect: mouse devices, keyboards, scanners, digital cameras and printers. ASDAs finance department uses this data storage device for all of these reasons. Hard Disk: This storage device is a non volatile storage device which stores digitally encoded data on rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. The hard disk in ASDAs finance department contains a memory of 80 GB. This huge hard disk is used to save numerous files such as forecasts, stock control and budgets. Without a big memory ASDAs finance department wouldnt be able to operate properly as they wouldnt be able to store all the files they needed to. Connection Intranet: The intranet is an internet service based just within the ASDA company. Briefly, an intranet can be understood as a private version of the Internet, or as a version of the Internet confined to a company. So ASDA has an internet service based on ASDA so information on the employees, employee of the moth and just general information on the website is displayed on ASDAs intranet. Internet: The internet is used in ASDAs finance department to use e-mail, gain information to help the department create a forecast and check the news as breaking news in the stock market can affect every single business in the UK including ASDA. So ASDA have to be in the best position possible to predict trends and forecast future sales. The finance department uses the internet to send e-mails to Software Applications used by ASDAs Finance Department Microsoft Word: All the computers in the finance department have Microsoft Word as standard. All the computers are updated as soon as the new Microsoft Word comes out so the finance department has Microsoft Word 2007. This has many features which benefits the department and is used for mail merging, memo and also to just write letters to other departments. The finance department of ASDA uses this software to produce the yearly financial report which takes away the profit the company has made from the expenditure to create the net profit of the year. ASDA uses Microsoft Word for this task as it makes the document look more professional ad the spell check tool allows ASDAs finance department to save a lot of time. Also, the finance department uses Microsoft Word to compile pay slips for their employees. Pay slips are essential as they show how much the worker ahs made and how much tax has been taken away from the worker. Once again the reason why Microsoft Word is used for this task is to make it look more professional and also save time because the finance department probably has a template of a pay slip and just have to alter it to match the correct information for each worker. Microsoft Excel: ASDAs finance department uses Excel to produce graphs and tables for several purposes. One of these purposes is to use graphs to accompany forecasts and budgets. They are used in budgets to show how much money is to be spent on each project. More importantly it is in forecasts to validate their prediction by producing graphs of previous trends to show why they think the company will go in the direction they think. Microsoft Access: The finance department uses this software to create databases for many reasons. One is to keep track of their creditors and keep records of whether they have paid them back or how much they still have to pay back. Also, databases are used by the finance department to keep records of each financial report of the year and see if the net profit of the company is increasing or getting worse. Moreover, Access is mainly used because of the advantages it possesses. These are being able to filter, sort and make queries which saves time. The database includes fields with information of ASDAs employees such as surname, first and second name, address lines, town, date of birth, date of employment, current position and salary, National Insurance number and notes where ASDA can comment on any employee. Microsoft Outlook: This software is used to keep the main diary of the office and all the events are noted to the Outlook calendar, using color codes for particular kinds of events. Any member of staff is enabled to access the diary on the main server. Also, Microsoft Outlook is used for workers to notify fellow staff when they are going to take their holidays on the calendar. Microsoft Outlook Express: This is used for sending e-mails to fellow employees and other departments in ASDA. The finance department needs to use e-mail to communicate to stock holders and stock suppliers and manufactures. Also the finance department needs to stay in contact with stock control to be notified if they need to make orders for the purchasing department Norton Anti Virus: This software is used to protect and defend the finances department computers against viruses. Viruses need defending against because they can cause damage to computers and destroy vital files. Viruses are so dangerous because they can cause the finance department to lose files that can stop them from operating efficiently. However, Norton Anti Virus prevents this and protects the computer. Sage Accounting Package: This is professional software for accountants and bookkeepers to help them do the job they need to. It is specially made to help the finance business do what they do. Dreamweaver: The ASDA finance department uses this piece of software to design a good website to advertise the finance department or just ASDA in general. The site includes opening times, news, online shopping, and history of the company and the mission statement of ASDA. The ASDA Finance Department Intranet: All the computers in the department have network cards and network software to allow them to access the sever and printers. Every worker in the finance department has their own passwords and this allows them to use all the software available from the main server and access all of their files from the finance department database. There are some common files on the server and others which are password protected so that only the person with the password can access them. This also prevents staff members accidentally amending or deleting another persons work. Evaluation The objective of ASDA is to comprehensively be recognised as the best supermarket in the UK. ICT as a whole enables ASDAs finance department to achieve its objectives in the following way: 1. Computers allow the finance department to create forecasts which indicate how products are going to sell and how many. 2. The database system which the department uses is much more efficient and quicker than other databases which the finance department was using. 3. ASDA have much software including Sage Accounting Package which is specifically designed for the efficient running of the finance department. 4. The ASDA finance department has the finest ICT equipment for their employees which ensure the employees can do their job with all the help needed from the very best equipment.

Effective use for family art therapy

Effective use for family art therapy Originally used in individual sessions, art therapy is taking a more active and integrated role in family therapy, crisis interventions such as violence in the home or alcoholism in the family, with mental health patients (e.g. schizophrenics), and children who are adopted or in foster homes. Families are a complex system comprised of subsytems, alliances, and triangles. In order to get a better understanding of familial patterns and how the family operates, art therapy sessions with the entire family provides an unusual opportunity to observe how the family unit functions in a situation less formal and less subject to their established mechanisms of control than is the purely verbal pyschotherapeutic interview (Kwiatkowska, p. 27). Art therapy is useful for providing an individual the opportunity to step back and evaluate the meaning of his or her subjective art expressions. This promotes a persons ability to symbolize, to think, and to think about thinking. Visual representation offers a means to express multiple layers of meaning in a condensed format. The graphic product is durable, allowing a client to review and respond to what has been expressed (Linesch, p. 26). Individuals, family members and the therapist literally have a visual picture of how an individual views themselves, their role in the family, wishes they have for their family, or anything else they have kept to themselves. Another effective use for art therapy is using metaphors to teach parents and children new roles and relationships, thus adding a new dimension to structural family therapy (Linesh, p. 51). For example, if a family is struggling with their adolescent child and the child draws his mother with a big mouth and says that mother is always yelling, mother realizes how she is affecting the family with her yelling. According to Kwiatkowska, the focus of therapy often switches because of the way different family members present their views of the problem. The initial reason for seeking treatment is overshadowed by a totally different aspect of the family disurbance brought to their awareness through their art productions (p.139). Drawing pictures, painting, or working with clay may seem easy and fun to do but this work demands a solid backgorund in family therapy and extensive psychoterapeutic experience in addition to art therapy training (Kwiatkowska, p. 137). Case and Dalley agree that the theory and practice of art therapy has evolved to require that the practioners of art therapy are highly trained and experienced people whose skills continue to develop after their initial training program (p. 146). Like regular therapists, art therapists must create boundaries with their clients and their families. One must be firm with families who disrupt the session either with constant bickering or irrelevant flow of words. Eventually such maneuvers should be explored as one of the patterns of family behavior (Kwiatkowska, p. 31). The basic role of the therapist is to create a non-threatening environment for the family as some members may feel anxious about working with art. It is the therapists duty to remind the family that when doing evaluations, it is important to emphasize that they will not be graded or tested on their artistic skill but instead use the media as a way to communicate and self expression (Kwiatkowska, p. 85). It is also important that the room must feel safe enough to express ideas, feelings, thoughts. Having open access to materials can make avilable man posible avenues of expression (Case and Dalley, p. 99). Case and Dalley believe it is not the job of the therapist to encourage spilling out of emotions but in fact to help the client feel that her feelings, however difficult to express, will be contained, listened to and understood (p. 102). The therapists role is to remain open to the imagery and all its potential meaning for the patient and containt the anxiety and feelings that are generated in attempting to understand it. It is possible a clear meaning will not emerge until weeks into therapy where connections can made and understanding takes place (Case and Dalley, p. 65). During assessments or therapy sessions the therapist will give the family some directives. For example, the therapist may request that the family draw a free picture, a picture of your family, an abstract family portrait, a picture started with the help of a scribble, a joing family scribble, then another free picture (Kwiatkowska, p. 86). The therapist should take notice of what materials each member uses and how they are explaining their picture. Proulx explains that as the art therapist views the work, they keep in mind the interactions that occurred how the material was used to symbolically represent the relationship and the amount of personal space occupied by the child or parent. Intensity of media application, amount of energy portrayed: is it full of life, full of color? Also note in the portrait who is included, who is left out, and which part of the work becomes the parents possession or the childs. Are there obvious projections ontothe child by the parent? Is there engagement, communication, emotional contact, enjoyment and loving? ( p. 72). Although some directives are given, the therapist should not offer help to the children until the parents or siblings have responded (or not responded) to the childs plea for help. Their behavior in this regard is an important source of information about how the parents have met their need of their adolescent or young adult offspring in their early childhood (Kwiatkowska, p. 85). In a regular session, the therapist can get more information from the family by asking them to explore self-perceptions. To do this, therapist can ask family members to draw themselves as they feel inside and to draw themselves as they imagine they look to their family (Linesch, p. 28). To facilitate adaptive coping, therapist might ask family to choose pictures or draw images that describe possible solutions to the problem. Family members may also be asked to represent themselves and their families as they are now and as they would like to be in the future. This can bring to light individual needs and family problem-solving (Linesch, p. 29). One of the disadvantages of art therapy is that the therapist is more vulnerable to misinterpretation in terms of the objective understanding of content. Care must be taken not to make rapid interpretations which might prevent or even deny the client the satisfaction of discovering and finding out for herself (Case and Dalley, p. 65). Because art therapy involves a lot of interpreation, it is understandable that critiques about this technique are similar to that of psychotherapy. The individuals images can come across as many things but only the individual himself can explain it. The therapist is urged not to point out obvious red signals, instead they should allow the client to come up with their own interpretations. Their own interpretations alone are something to make note of as it may shed some light on the clients thought process. Throughout many examples explored, art therapy was useful in helping family members listen to one another, rebalance hierarchies, and provided a vehicle for the individuals to take advantage of increased self-expressive abilities and share their internal experiences as communication between family/system members (Linesch, p. 158).

John Smith and William Bradford :: essays research papers

John Smith and William Bradford were both leaders who established colonies. They both established a colony and they attempted to attract settlers with writings. Their writings were intended for different audiences and they both had different purposes. John Smith's writings were different than William Bradford's. John Smith had a different purpose and his writings were intended for a different audience. John Smith's purpose was to bring people to the new world. He wrote a pamphlet to the people in England and told about all the good things about New England. In his pamphlet he tried to persuade people to join him in the new land. John Smith wrote about how he promised New England was better than England. John Smith's audience was intended for people from England, and possible settlers. John Smith said, "What pleasure can be more than in planting vines, fruits, or herbs, in contriving their own grounds to the pleasure of their own minds, their fields, gardens, orchards, buildings, ships, and other works†¦." William Bradford's writings were intended for different audiences and he had a different purpose than John Smith. William Bradford's audience was intended for the future generation. His writings were intended for the future generation. He wrote a diary about his actual experiences in Colonial America. Bradford discussed in his diary about the many hardships he faced. Bradford said, "But that which was most sad and lamentable was, that in two or three months' time half of their company died†¦" Though Bradford talked about the bad things, he also talked about the goods things that occurred during the first Thanksgiving. William Bradford said, "And besides waterfowl there was great store of wild turkeys, of which they took many, besides

Essay --

Executive Summary Before adopting the euro as the official currency in 2001, Greece was one the stable European economies. The early stages of the currency transition worked very well for Greece. However, the state later fell into financial crisis, which has not only affected Greece’s government, but also the entire European countries and their trading partners, such as the United States. Therefore, the Greece financial crisis has become a global concern with the United States Congress, making it a continuous concern brought about by trading partnership, United Banks exposure, and the involvement of the International Monetary Fund institutions. The Greece financial crisis could have been controlled, had it not been for the malicious acts by countries such as Germany and France, which were already using more than the limit at that time. Several nations have both supported and opposed the financial support towards responding to the Greece financial crisis. Nevertheless, it is clear that withdrawi ng from the Eurozone or defaulting the debt would have had many devastating effects on the Greece market investors, the European Union, the European Central Bank, and the European trading partners. The Greek Prime Minister Papandreou has been under great pressure from the opposition, as his parliament passed the austerity measures, which have contradicted his campaign manifesto. However, the search for a lasting solution to help Greece regain its economic stability have continuously formed debate agenda in different political and economic platforms in European and global forums 1- Introduction The Eurozone is facing a serious severing debt crisis. Several member states of the European community have high, potentially unsustainable levels of... ...ded with the correct measures. The debt continued to pile to amounts that Greece could no longer afford to repay on its own. Several response strategies have been employed to help reestablish the Greece economic conditions to levels before the crises. However, these efforts have only achieved helping the Greece government to avoid the default. These response strategies include Fiscal Consolidation and Economic Reforms in Greece. Banks also aided Greece in getting out of the crises. The European Union Central Bank and the International Monetary Fund gave loans to Greece market investors. The Federal Reserve (Fed) also supported the response to the crisis through the establishment of temporary reciprocal currency arrangements referred to as swap lines with several central banks in the Eurozone in a bid to increase the liquidity of the dollar in the global economy. â€Æ'

Diabetes: Prevention and Treatment Essay -- Diseases/Disorders

Public health emphasizes the importance of prevention and proactively taking care of one’s body. As people grow older, they must follow certain guidelines to ensure that they age healthily and successfully. One of the biggest concerns facing the aging population is chronic diseases. Chronic diseases are long term diseases that have a slow progression. Once chronic diseases pass â€Å"certain symptomatic or diagnostic thresholds,† they become a permanent aspect of an individual’s life because â€Å"medical and personal regimens can sometimes control but can rarely cure them† (Albert and Freeman 105). One chronic condition that is a cause of concern is diabetes. Diabetes is not only one of the leading causes of death in the over 65 population but also one of the most prevalent and debilitating conditions (111). Diabetes is a chronic disease or condition that involves the hormone insulin, which helps regulate the amount of glucose in a person’s bloodstream. When cells are in need of energy the pancreas produce insulin; this mechanism allows cells to absorb glucose from the bloodstream. Diabetes occurs when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or the body has become resistant to its own insulin; this leaves an excess amount of glucose in the bloodstream as there is no insulin present to guide it to the cells (â€Å"Diabetes†). There are two types of diabetes that affects the worldwide population: Type I and Type II. Type I is typically prevalent in children and is characterized by an insulin deficiency. Type II diabetes is adult onset and occurs when the body is resistant to the insulin it produces. Type II affects approximately 90 percent of people with diabetes around the world. Due to the similarity in symptoms between both types... ... Disease Control and Prevention, 01 Aug. 2011. Web. 03 May 2012. . "Diabetes." World Health Organization. World Health Organization, Aug. 2011. Web. 03 May 2012. . "HealthEase." Division of Aging and Community Services. State of New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services. Web. 03 May 2012. . "Medicare Diabetes Screening Project." Medicare Diabetes Screening Project. Web. 03 May 2012. . Span, Paula. "For Elderly Diabetics, Questions About Aggressive Care." New York Times. New York Times, 11 Apr. 2011. Web. 03 May 2012. . Diabetes: Prevention and Treatment Essay -- Diseases/Disorders Public health emphasizes the importance of prevention and proactively taking care of one’s body. As people grow older, they must follow certain guidelines to ensure that they age healthily and successfully. One of the biggest concerns facing the aging population is chronic diseases. Chronic diseases are long term diseases that have a slow progression. Once chronic diseases pass â€Å"certain symptomatic or diagnostic thresholds,† they become a permanent aspect of an individual’s life because â€Å"medical and personal regimens can sometimes control but can rarely cure them† (Albert and Freeman 105). One chronic condition that is a cause of concern is diabetes. Diabetes is not only one of the leading causes of death in the over 65 population but also one of the most prevalent and debilitating conditions (111). Diabetes is a chronic disease or condition that involves the hormone insulin, which helps regulate the amount of glucose in a person’s bloodstream. When cells are in need of energy the pancreas produce insulin; this mechanism allows cells to absorb glucose from the bloodstream. Diabetes occurs when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or the body has become resistant to its own insulin; this leaves an excess amount of glucose in the bloodstream as there is no insulin present to guide it to the cells (â€Å"Diabetes†). There are two types of diabetes that affects the worldwide population: Type I and Type II. Type I is typically prevalent in children and is characterized by an insulin deficiency. Type II diabetes is adult onset and occurs when the body is resistant to the insulin it produces. Type II affects approximately 90 percent of people with diabetes around the world. Due to the similarity in symptoms between both types... ... Disease Control and Prevention, 01 Aug. 2011. Web. 03 May 2012. . "Diabetes." World Health Organization. World Health Organization, Aug. 2011. Web. 03 May 2012. . "HealthEase." Division of Aging and Community Services. State of New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services. Web. 03 May 2012. . "Medicare Diabetes Screening Project." Medicare Diabetes Screening Project. Web. 03 May 2012. . Span, Paula. "For Elderly Diabetics, Questions About Aggressive Care." New York Times. New York Times, 11 Apr. 2011. Web. 03 May 2012. .

Herpes Simplex Virus

Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection at the Molecular Level Research Paper Virology 24 November 2008 Abstract Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection is widespread and causes significant disease in humans. The structure, epidemiology, pathogensis and immune response are examined in this review, as well as specific ways to reduce and eliminate pathology and related diseases. The virus naturally infects mucosal areas and begins the search for its target host cell. Upon binding to the host cell membrane via teams of glycoproteins, the virion is then phagocytosed.Soon the nucleus is seized and all regular host cell mechanisms are shut off. Replication of HSV-1 is specific encoding immediate early, early and late genes. Once the virus replication process is complete the virus exits epithelial cells near the site of infection through a process known as cell lysis. Sensory neurons are the specific target of HSV-1, where it can then travel to the trigeminal ganglia (TG) stoma via neur onal microtubular networks. Both innate and adaptive immune systems respond to the infection with various antibodies, interleukins and interferons.Once the virion reaches the nervous system, the immune responses are unable to detect it although they try to contain it as best they can. HSV-1 enters a latent stage, usually via latent associated transcripts, not causing pathogenesis but unable to fight off by means of the host immune system. Following a stressful situation or similarly UV activation, HSV-1 travels back down nerve fibers to re-infect cells near the original site of infection. This process is known to continue throughout the lifespan of the infected individual, normally without fatalities.When the host immune response is unable to contain the virus in the TG, several associated diseases such as encephalitis and keratits result. Genes involved with virus replication and host genes, to eliminate the virus, have been maneuvered to cause reverse effects and are currently use d as antivirals. Although no vaccine has been approved for use against HSV-1, various attempts have been made. This research paper defines the virus infection at a molecular level as well as demonstrates modifications of the virus genes to cause reverse effects and investigates just a few of the diseases connected with HSV-1.Introduction Herpes simplex viruses type 1 and 2 are well known members of the family Herpesviridae, subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae, which cause lifelong, latent infection in humans. Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) typically remains the cause of cold sores, gingivostomatitis, and skin lesions in the orofacial area, as well as many rare but fatal conditions (1). Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) is primarily associated with genital area infection. Worldwide, approximately one third of people display clinical manifestations of HSV-1 infection (2).HSV-1 is neurotropic, infecting multiple cell types but establishing latency in the trigeminal ganglia (TG). HSV-1 reactivates, in response to certain stimuli such as emotional or physical stress or UV light, and is transported along nerve fibers to mucosal or cutaneous regions (1). Infected cells show signs of the nucleus changing shape and nucleolus displacement with a formation of multinucleated giant cells. Cells degenerate, lyse and vesicles of fluid containing the virus locate between the epidermis and dermal layer of the skin forming a lesion (2).Although HSV-1 infects a large percentage of the population, few actually show symptoms of disease. HSV Structure and Genome HSV-1 is an enveloped double stranded DNA (dsDNA) virus consisting of four elements. First, an outer envelope with glycoprotein spikes on its surface. Second, a tegument layer including several viral proteins important during HSV-1 infection. Third, an iscosahedral capsid surrounding the last compartment, the electron opaque core containing the dsDNA genome wrapped as a spool. The envelope is made up of 13 different viral g lycoproteins embedded in a lipid bilayer.The viral genome of 152 kb, encode the majority of the proteins of the mature virion. Covalently linked L (long) and S (short) components are broken down into unique long (Ul), flanked by ab and b’a’ repeated segments, and unique short (Us), flanked by ac and c’a’ repeated segments. Homologous recombination between terminal repeats results in four linear isomers at equimolar concentrations (see figure 1). All four isomers, including P (prototype), IL (inversion of the L component), IS (inversion of the S component) and ISL (inversion of both the S and the L component), encode 90 unique transcription genes essential for viral replication (3).HSV Replication Infection is first initialted by the attachment to the host cell glucosaminoglycans, usually heparin sulphate and chondroiton sulphate, with viral glycoprotein C (gC). This bond results in at least five glycoprtoeins, gB, gC, gD, gH and gL, binding to other cell surface receptors, such as Herpesvirus entry mediator or nectin 1? or ? (4). Fusion of the viral envelope follows, and the de-enveloped tegument capsid is transported to the nuclear pores via the microtubular network, where DNA is released into the nucleus.Nuclear pore complex accepts the viral DNA from the capsid, minimizing the diffusion of DNA to the cytoplasm, and the transfer is completed by nuclear pore proteins (5). The viral genome circularizes upon entering the nucleus, and transcription of the five immediate early genes (IE) is done by the host RNA polymerase II. Among the IE genes are ICP0, ICP4, ICP22, ICP27 and ICP47. Host transcription, RNA splicing and transport are inhibited during replication, known as host cell shut off. Early (E) viral genes encode enzymes in nucleotide metabolism and viral DNA replication and require the presence of IE genes.Viral E gene products, including viral DNA polymerase, single-stranded DNA-binding protein, origin binding protein and DNA helicase-primase, assemble on the parental viral DNA and start DNA synthesis in replication compartments. Three DNA replication origins bind by viral origin-binding protein, separate the DNA strands and initiate viral DNA synthesis. Expression of the late (L) genes begins and produces structural components of the virion. Capsid assembly occurs in the cytoplasm and the associated proteins are then transported to the nucleus.Progeny DNA concatamers are cleaved into monomers and are inserted into the capsid. Cleavage and packing of HSV-1 genome requires two cis-acting elements, pac1 and pac2. Next the nucleocapsid matures and egress by passing through the Golgi apparatus with the tegument layer and the virion envelope. (3) HSV Latency After infection of the mucosa or epithelial abrasion, HSV-1 enters sensory neurons near the site of infection and the tegument and nucleocapsid travel by retrograde axonal transport to cell neuronal soma releasing viral DNA and VP16, when the virus may en ter lytic replication or the latent state.Lytic replication results in neuronal cell death as described above. (2,3) During latency the genome circularizes and enters a heavily chromatinated state where no infectious virus is produced and the majority of viral gene expression is silenced. Latency associated transcripts (LAT), mRNA genes, are the only transcripts found in latent neurons (6). Expression of LATs is not absolutely required for maintenance of latency. Reactivation triggers the virus to be transported in the opposite direction, antrograde, and re-infection occurs at the initial site of infection. HSV and the Immune SystemThe immune response to HSV-1 includes both innate and adaptive immune responses. Innate immunity is the first line of defense including natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and various cytokines and complement proteins. Initial response involves secreted proteins, such as defensins and complement proteins. Complement proteins bind HSV antigens resulting in the cleavage of complement molecules. This, followed by the formation of the membrane attack complex, destroys the virus. HSV gC blocks the complement cascade, counteracting the effects of complement.The adaptive immune response is triggered with B cell memory enhanced in response to the virus. An antiviral state is induced by infected epithelial cells and resident interferon producing cells (IPCs), secreting interferon ? and ? , priming the surrounding cells for apoptosis. Tumor necrosis factors ? (TNF-? ) is also produced by IPCs and acts as an autocrine signal stimulating differentiation of ICPs to dendritic cells. They can travel to the lymph nodes to stimulate CD4+ T cells to produce IFN-? and interleukin 10 (IL-10). After infection and replication, HSV-1 destroys infected cells and travels to sensory neurons.Polymorphonuclear leukocytes, macrophages, NK and TCR+ T cells infiltrate the TG, control the infection and prevent the spread of the virus to rear by cells, including the brain. The adaptive immune response is driven by the innate immune response. Antigen presenting cells migrate from the site of infection to the regional lymph node to present CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and B cells. Deficient complement cascades leads to less vigorous memory response to HSV-1. Antibodies against gD and the gH-gL complex are found to protect against HSV-1 and are observed as cross reactive to other strains of HSV.Macrophages engulf viral proteins and cell particles from lysed cells and also secrete cytokines favoring the T helper (Th) cell CD4+ response. CD8+ cytoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) are produced and they react with epitopes displayed on infected cells, which are then targeted for apoptosis. See figure 2. The IE protein ICP 27 contains potent CTL epitopes. The efficacy of gB to induce a CTL response suggests gB is the immunodominant antigen of HSV-1. (2) Beneficial Modifications of Genes Associated with Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 and Relative As sociated DiseasesOccasionally the immune system is unable to prevent HSV-1 from spreading to surrounding structures such as the eye. Ocular HSV-1 infection is termed herpetic keratitis, tissue destruction of the eye, and is currently treated with trifluridine or valacyclovir to inhibit HSV-1 DNA polymerase and terminate synthesis of the sugar backbone of viral DNA. The current antiviral compounds require phosphorylation by the infected cell, meaning the antiviral activity cannot take place until the infection has progressed to the point where specific viral thymidine kinase is synthesized.A new idea involves helicase-primase inhibitors acting to prevent the unwinding of the double-stranded DNA and the initiation of the new strand synthesis necessary for viral production. Kleymann et al. found a compound, BAY 57-1293, more potent and more effective than valacyclovir and unassociated with systemic toxicity to initiate the described mechanism. (7) A similar study explored the lesion as sociated with the tissue destruction of the cornea, specifically angiogenesis of stromal keratits (SK).The fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2), a molecule known to stimulate cell growth to contribute to wound healing, was targeted to observe the antiviral activity via its effect on HSV-1 cell entry. FGF-2 inhibits HSV-1 from binding to heparin sulfate, thus hindering entrance into the host cell. Results of this study suggest severity and clinical SK could be significantly diminished by daily treatment of lesions with FGF-2 protein, due to accelerated epithelial wound healing. (8) Similarly, HSV-1 can surpass the immune response and travel to the brain. HSV-1 encephalitis is the most devastating consequence of HSV and the most ommon cause of fetal encephalitis. Early growth response 1 (Erg-1) is a zinc finger transcription factor expressed in neural tissue, and is induced during stress. It regulates growth, apoptosis, angiogenesis and development. Erg-1 is known to regulate several vi ral genes, including LATs, and is inducible by viral proteins. Erg-1 increases viral replication in infected cells and mortality in infected mice. Knockout of Erg-1 expression was shown to reduce the mortality by decreasing the viral loads to tissues in a study conducted by Shis-Heng Chen et al. 9) It has been demonstrated HSV-1 can induce increased activity of central norepinephrine or serotonin neurons, by activating the cell bodies located in the brain stem, following encephalitis. Increased brain stem activity of these neurotransmitters can impair glucocorticoids (GC) negative feedback receptors, activating cytokines IL-1 and TNF? , reducing the binding capacity of said GC receptors. Impaired control of the GC negative feedback regulation upon the hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal axis has been suggested as an important aspect in major depression. (10)Thrombin is a result of the generation of sequential proteolytic enzymes activating circular precursor enzymes and cofactors for bloo d clotting. HSV-1, HSV-2 and cytomegalovirus have been shown to avoid cellular control of coagulation initiation through the constitutive expression of procoagulant phospholipids and tissue factor. This allows the unregulated generation of thrombin because tissue factor can bind ciruculating factor VIIa, forming a cofactor-enzyme complex directly on the virus. ‘Tenase’ activity has been credited to HSV-1 encoded gC, which accelerates the FVIIa-dependent activation of FX.FXa associates with its cofactor V to convert prothrombin to thrombin. Assembly of FX and FV leading to thrombin generation has been demonstrated on the virus surface. Herpes virus genomic material has been associated with atherosclerosis plaque, thrombosis and atherosclerosis due to the unregulated production of thrombin. (11) It is well known NK cells aid in the fight against HSV-1 infection. Severe herpetic infections have been seen in NK -deficient patients, as well as early infiltrations of herpetic lesions by NK cells. This due to damage of HLA class 1 expression by HSV-1 and the lysis of HSV-1 infected targets by NK cells.E. Estefania et al. presented a study suggesting clinical symptoms of HSV-1 infection being more likely to happen among humans expressing the NK cell receptors KIR2DL2 and KIR2DS2. The genes encoding the receptors appear to increase the risk of recurrent infection, where the lack of the receptors is shown to protect from the disease. (1) Conclusion HSV-1 can cause severe recurrent disease in humans and establish lifelong infection in their hosts. Several antiviral approaches have been considered to counteract the effects of HSV-1 throughout the body yet no vaccine, to cure the infection from its host, has been accepted.Acyclovir, and its ester derivative valacyclovir, as well as penciclovir and its prodrug famciclovir, are the latest approved antiviral medications to battle HSV-1 infection. Several other strategies are currently under investigation such as potential therapeutic vaccines, cidofovir, and aqueous extracts in Africa. Past attempts of vaccines have utilized viral vectors, DNA vaccination, recombinant bacteria, cytokines to manipulate the immune response, novel adjuvants, innovative delivery systems and different routes of inoculation. Most of which have been successful in lab mice but none have been approved for human use.Therapeutic vaccines target symptomatic individuals, using DNA vaccines encoding various cytokines used to intentionally bias the immune system toward Th1 or Th2 responses. Different boosts with different cytokine adjuvants may be used to induce proper immune response. (2) Extracts from the eastern cape of Africa, Aloe ferox and Withania somnifera, confirmed morphological changes indicative of cytopathic effects that retard the replication and spread of HSV-1. (12) Furthermore, a hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipient developed mucosal HSV-1 infection, and while under acyclovir treatment, later show ed resistance to the antiviral.After developing hemorrhagic cystitis due to polyomavirus BK, cidofovir was prescribed and the patient profited from the broad spectrum anti-DNA virus activity with the disappearance of HSV-1 lesions. (13) In conclusion, as described above the mechanisms by which HSV-1 hijacks and hides out in its host, have been studied to great detail and are routinely manipulated. The particularly complex structure, as well as detailed means by which each gene in the large genome is activated and carries out its genes products, intrigue many scientists which continue to investigate and attempt a formidable vaccine against the virus.Studies among mice have proven effective, although HSV-1 is a very host specific infection, thus making trials of acceptable anitvirals and vaccines extremely difficult. The only slightly acceptable element of HSV-1 infection is, in rare cases where no reoccurrences is shown, and moreover there are many instances of asymptomatic carriers. Devastating incidence such as transferring HSV-1 to a neonate during delivery and schizophrenics showing decreased prefrontal grey matter due to HSV-1, are just a pinch of the terrifying effects of this virus, remaining in host TG until a stressful situation comes along. 14,15) Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 Genome (Figure 1) 00 Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection (Figure 2) Works Cited 1. )Estefania, E, et al. â€Å"Influence of KIR gene diversity on the course of HSV-1 infection: resistance to the disease is associated with the absence of KIR2DL2 and KIR2DS2. † Tissue Antigens 70. 1 (July 2007): 34-41. MEDLINE. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 19 Nov. 2008 . 2. )Ferenczy, Michael W. â€Å"Prophylactic Vaccine Strategies and the Potential of Therapeutic Vaccines Against Herpes Simplex Virus. † Current Pharmaceutical Design 13. 9 July 2007): 1975-1988. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 19 Nov. 2008 . 3. )S hen, Y, and J Nemunaitis.. â€Å"Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) for cancer treatment. † Cancer Gene Therapy 13. 11 (07 Nov. 2006): 975-992. MEDLINE. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 19 Nov. 2008 . 4. )Clement, Christian, et al. â€Å"A novel role for phagocytosis-like uptake in herpes simplex virus entry. † Journal of Cell Biology 174. 7 (25 Sep. 2006): 1009-1021. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 4 Sep. 2008 . 5. )Newcomb, William W, Frank P Booy, and Jay C Brown. â€Å"Uncoating the herpes simplex virus genome. † Journal Of Molecular Biology 370. 4 (20 July 2007): 633-642. MEDLINE. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 3 Sep. 2008 . 6. )Ramachandran, Srividya, and Paul R Kinchington.. â€Å"Potential prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines for HSV infections. † Current Pharmaceutical Design 13. 19 (2007): 1965-1973. MEDLINE. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 22 Nov. 2008 . 7. )Kaufman, Herbert E, et al. Efficacy of a helicase-primase inhibitor in animal models of ocular herpes simplex virus type 1 infection. † Journal Of Ocular Pharmacology And Therapeutics: The Official Journal Of The Association For Ocular Pharmacology And Therapeutics 24. 1 (Feb. 2008): 34-42. MEDLINE. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 19 Nov. 2008 . 8. )Kim, Bumseok, et al. â€Å"Application of FGF-2 to Modulate Herpetic Stromal Keratitis. † Current Eye Research 31. 12 (Dec. 2006): 1021-1028. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 19 Nov. 2008 . 9. )Chen S, Yao H, Chen I, Shieh B, Li C, Chen S.Suppression of transcription factor early growth response 1 reduces herpes simplex virus lethality in mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation [serial online]. October 2008;118(10):3470-3477. Available from: Academic Search Premier, Ipswich, MA. Accessed November 22, 2008. 10. )Bener, Dafna, et al. â€Å"Gl ucocorticoid Resistance following Herpes Simplex-1 Infection: Role of Hippocampal Glucocorticoid Receptors. † Neuroendocrinology 85. 4 (Apr. 2007): 207-215. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 19 Nov. 2008 . 11. )Thrombin paper 12. )Kambizi, L. , et al. Anti-viral effects of aqueous extracts of Aloe Xerox and Withania somnifera on herpes simplex virus type 1 in cell culture. † South African Journal of Science 103. 9/10 (Sep. 2007): 359-360. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 10 Sep. 2008 . 13. )Andrei, G, et al. â€Å"Dual infection with polyomavirus BK and acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus successfully treated with cidofovir in a bone marrow transplant recipient. † Transplant Infectious Disease: An Official Journal Of The Transplantation Society 9. 2 (June 2007): 126-131. MEDLINE. EBSCO. Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 19 Nov. 2008 . 14. )Brown, Elizabeth L. , et al. â€Å"Effect of maternal herpes simplex virus (HSV) serostatus and HSV type on risk of neonatal herpes. † Acta Obstetricia & Gynecologica Scandinavica 86. 5 (May 2007): 523-529. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 17 Sep. 2008 . 15. )Prasad, K. M. R. , et al. â€Å"Brain morphological changes associated with exposure to HSV1 in first-episode schizophrenia. † Molecular Psychiatry 12. 1 (Jan. 2007): 105-113. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 1 Oct. 2008 .

Human Aggression In The Social Context: An Analysis Of The Reasons Why Human Beings Fight

Human aggression has been consistently blamed for the growing incidence of violence all over the world. The link between aggression and violence is clear when we are to consider factors other than biological and psychological factors. This paper aims to establish a clear evidence of the direct influence of social factors in human aggression. Further, this paper aimed at establishing the fact that suppressing violence is possible when social factors are controlled.For the purpose of initial discussion, this paper preferred to briefly discuss the definition of human aggression using official definitions for the purpose of establishing a common ground. Biological and psychological factors are no more discussed, aside from comparison some part of the paper for the reason that this paper focuses on the role of social factors in human aggression.Bulk of this paper discusses and investigates the role of social factors and the social responsibility towards human aggression. A conclusion and a number of recommendations are offered by the writer for the readers’ consideration.The United Nations, an international organization of countries in the world aimed at 1maintaining international peace and security, had in its 2319th Plenary Meeting adopted a board resolution for the official definition of aggression.UN addressed aggression in a global concept as â€Å"the most serious and dangerous form of the illegal use of force, being fraught, in the conditions created by the existence of all types of weapons of mass destruction, with the possible threat of a world conflict and all its catastrophic consequences† (Resolution 3314, Annex).For the purpose of a broader discussion of the subject, this writer finds it important to present the qualifications of aggression outlined and approved by the UN Board (Article 3):1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The invasion, attack or occupation by the armed forces of a State of the terr itory of another State by the use of force.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Bombardment by the armed forces of a State against the territory of another State or the use of any weapons.3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The blockade of the ports or coasts of a State by the armed forces of another State.4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   An attack by the armed forces of a State on the land, sea or air forces, or marine and air fleets of another State.5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The use of armed forces of one State which are within the territory of another State in contravention of the conditions provided for in the agreement or any extension of their presence in such territory beyond the termination of the agreement.6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The action of a State in allowing its territory to be used by that other State for perpetrating an act of aggression against a third State.7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The sending by or on behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries, which carry out acts of armed force against another State.In consideration of the above qualifications, we can draw out just one general idea of how UN regard aggression and that is any act that will harm other countries or state. Needed to be stressed, the Board Resolution also qualified that such acts are considered as aggression regardless of the declaration of war.The etymology of the word will also lead us to the same element as with that of the United Nation’s official definition. Merriam-Webster defines aggression as(1) a forceful action or procedure (as an unprovoked attack) especially when intended to dominate or master,(2) the practice of making attacks or encroachments; especially unprovoked violation by one country of the territorial integrity of another (3) hostile, injurious, or destructive behavior or outlook especially when caused by frustration. It is a derivation of the Latin word aggressio which means â€Å"attack† (Merriam-Webster Online).Sarah Mc Cawley has adapted a more direct and simple definition: 2â€Å"Aggression is an action. It is intended to harm someone.† Mc Cawley stressed that aggression as an action can be in a verbal or physical manner. The main point of the above definitions is the presence and intention of producing harm.Prominent personalities in related fields of sciences seem to agree on the said definition. But when it comes to the analysis of the caused of aggression, biologists, psychologists and even social psychologists differ in their views and interpretations of study results.The debate between and the natural (innate) and socio-cultural (learned) causes of aggression had been an international issue for many years. Desp ite the long list of studies and experiments done on the subject, violence, as a result of aggression still continues to dominate over peace. It is therefore important to find out why while biological factors of aggression have been proven to be valid not all persons resort to violence.There must be something else that provokes human aggression as suggested by the difference in crime rates or incidents of violence in different areas and regions of the world. There must be something outside the human nature of aggressiveness that induces him to fight. This paper asserts that â€Å"social conditions also contribute to the expression of aggression† (J. Taylor & J. Nellist).Bandura is well-known for his 4Social Learning Theory which he developed using his experiment on kids and bo-bo dolls. This theory holds that humans are not innately aggressive (S. Mc Cawley). Bandura asserts that children to be aggressive in two ways:   by observation and from receiving rewards for the aggr essive behavior. Mc Cawley offered a logical example of the observation process.A child for example is a witness of how his father beats his wife after some sort of heated argument. After showing such aggressive behavior, the father obviously had successfully dominated the situation and because of beating his wife, the argument then stopped.In the child’s eyes, his father’s aggressive behavior (beating his wife) is a way of resolving the problem (wife arguing with the husband). The reward then for the aggressive behavior is that the argument had been stopped. This is an example of observational learning (J. Liu).Rewards may also come in different ways: 5getting control of the situation, getting praise/ positive reinforcement for the aggressive behavior or by stopping aggression by others or the negative reinforcement.For example, the father has to beat his wife in order to stop nagging so the reward for being aggressive is of having the goal of stopping the wifeâ€℠¢s nagging. If a child tries to bully another child in force him to lend him a toy, the aggressive behavior is rewarded when the other child gave up his toy because the other tries to hurt him.Negative reinforcement happens when a child tries to threaten other child that he sees as a potential threat to his toys or food. For example, child A will warn child B not to get his toys otherwise child A will no more let him in their house ever again.If child B being threatened will not in turn get the toys, child A is being rewarded for his aggressive behavior. Having been either positively rewarded or successful by negative reinforcement, the child gets to repeat the aggressive behavior over and over again.An individual who had experienced or is currently experiencing some sort of violence are believed to be more aggressive than those who are not exposed to it. This is maintained by the concept of 3victim association as asserted by Nathanson and Cantor. In their experiment, two sets of ch ildren were asked to watch a violent movie.One set were advised to feel the emotions of the victims in the movie they are to watch. The other set watched the movie without any sort of advice. It turned out that those children who were asked to empathize with the victims in the violent movie were less likely to exhibit violent behavior than those who just watched the movie.